Commemorative Speech Essay

Different personal types exist around the world. Each type is specific for each person, and it is how we can see differences from the other people. My type of personality abbreviation is (ESTJ). It means that I am (E) extravert, (S) sensing, (T) thinking and (J) judging. On the other hand my learning style preference is a combination of aural and kinesthetic because I think that we need to listen or see methods to learn anything. It means that you need to practice or you need that someone tells you how can you do anything for you know how can you do it. Personally I think that you learn when you practice what you want to learn. As I say, I am extravert. I think that it helps in my process of learning because it makes be able to explain and discuss my points of view, that I can have many friends that can help me with anything that I need and the most important thing that I can work with my class mates in a friendly environment that facilitates the process of learning. For example, I am Colombian and English is not my first language. Sometimes I do not understand some things, but I try to make many friends in each Santiesteban 2 class and they have helped me so much in the homework‘s or classwork‘s that I maybe do not understand. I also try to speak every time with them and it helps to improve my English in the short time that I have been here. Secondly, I tend to be sensing and I think that allows to me be specific in what I need to learn and that I take methods, examples or ideas that I already learned to apply for life. For example in the process of learning when I need to learn anything, I need specific explanations of How can I do it and personally I think that the specific answers are the best method to learn because it gives you the way that you must follow step by step to finally get what you want, in this case learn what you need. Third, I choose thinking, being a thinking person is appropriate in a learning process because you can make good decisions without involving your feelings, do your things being impartial and impersonal, you are fair with everything you do and do not think about the causes but the impact. An example of this is the teachers, they have to be thinking people because they have to be impersonal at the time of rank and rate the student and don’t think if they are close to them or know them or are friends with them. They have to be fair with every decision they make, and if they involve feelings they do wrong their job and teaching in a bad way that later will affect the student to a short or long term. Santiesteban 3 Finally, I am a judging person and I think is a thing that could have a big influence in your life; like you can have an exigent life, and be demanding with the decisions you make, keeping your things in order and being responsible with all that I have to do, thinking about the future and what the decision would bring to me. Being a judging person is better for learning because you require much effort of you and every time you are asking yourself for more and not conforming to a lame job, working firmly until the end and never giving up on things you started, always being punctual and showing that you can get really good results if you work hard. I think that it helped me so much because I learned things about my personality and my learning style that really I did not know and now I can use these things to make my process of learning easier. I define myself principally as a responsible person. I think that it is where we have to base to get our goals. If we are responsible and we work with effort, I am sure that we can get whatever we want. I need to know difference when use the aural style to learning and when use the kinesthetic style because I tend to use always the aural style, but sometimes we need to make the things, I learn from the experience of something that we have practiced before.

Why Is Agriculture Important in the World of Today

Since the dawn of history, agriculture has been one of the important means of producing food for human consumption. Today more and more lands are being developed for the production of a large variety crops. In Asia, vast areas of land are being used to produce rice, wheat, rubber and a variety of other crops. In Asia, vast areas of land are being used to produce rice, wheat, rubber and a variety of other crops. More than half of the lands occupied and developed by human beings in the world are devoted to agriculture. That agriculture is one of the most essential means of producing food is realized easily when we think of the types of things that we eat. The rice or wheat that we eat comes from the land. Even potatoes and other roots or vegetables and even leaves such as tea, as well as the fruits that men eat are the products of the soil that covers the earth. In fact, everything that we eat except meat, fish and other kinds of flesh comes from the land and what grows on the land is part of agriculture. Even the sugar, oil, coffee and other beverages that we use are products of plants that grow on the land. In the same way, many of the medicines that we use are made of plants that grow in various parts of the world. The tobacco that we use for relaxation also comes from a plant. Thus, it can be easily observed that without agriculture we would be almost without food. It is true, however, that in the remote past men did live mainly on flesh that he obtained by hunting. But such a kind of life was unhappy and inconvenient, for animals were not found everywhere easily. Therefore, men turned to agriculture for his livelihood. Today, agriculture continues to provide almost all the foods that men require to survive on the earth.

The Phenomenon of the Equity Premium Puzzle Assignment

The Phenomenon of the Equity Premium Puzzle - Assignment Example Myopic loss aversion is a behavioral finance approach used to explain the size of equity risk premium. Behavioral finance deviates from the standard economic theory and integrates the human psychology with economic theory. The concept of myopic loss aversion rests on two principals   It includes the cognitive and unconscious operations used by people to organize, evaluate and keep track of financial activities. This approach implies that people tend to make and evaluate decisions one at a time and then they place them in separate mental accounts rather than evaluate them in a broader context. In a financial perspective, this refers to how transactions are grouped both cross-sectionally (are securities evaluated one at a time or as portfolios) and inter-temporally (how often are portfolios evaluated). When this narrow evaluation of the decisions and outcomes take place, financial investors will tend to make short-term decisions rather than adopt long-term policies regarding their investments and evaluate their gains and losses frequently. â€Å"When we look at the historical record of investment returns, we find that the vast majority of long-term returns are derived from just seven percent of all trading months. The returns of the remaining ninety-three percent of the months on average are virtually zero†. It implies that the shorter the investment horizon, greater the chances that the investor will experience a loss in the value his portfolio. Moreover, if an investor has the risk-averse preferences then the time horizon over which he evaluates his portfolio also impacts his investment preferences. For example, stocks seem to be risky and yield fewer returns in the short run, while debt instrument is safer and seem to be profitable in short run. So if a risk inverse investor inspects his portfolio daily then he will find the bonds much more profitable and attractive as compared to stocks and will find the stock highly risky and yielding lower returns, because stock prices highly fluctuate up and down on daily basis and losses have a double effect on investor’s mind.

The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Research Paper

The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire - Research Paper Example This gradual decline that eventually ended with the crumbling of the empire is widely debated by scholars and the events involved were comprehensively documented. This paper will cite some of the important reasons cited by these sources and in the process identify the most important and credible causation for the fall. Background The Roman Empire succeeded the Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization. In its early years, it has effectively expanded the dominion acquired by its predecessor. By 98 AD, Emperor Trajan has dramatically extended the borders of the Empire, with the empire finally covering more than 6.5 million square miles of land, spanning the entire perimeter of the Mediterranean Sea, stretching as far north as Scotland, south to Arabia and east to Mesopotamia.1 This is the reason why the Roman Empire is considered to be one of the greatest to have ruled in history. The Romans considered themselves lords of the world and it seemed like it was actually true. As Marshall pointed out, â€Å"all the trade and skill, all the art and learning of the known world, were theirs,† and that â€Å"beyond the borders of the Roman Empire the world was given over to wild barbarians, who were skilled neither in the arts of war nor of peace.2† Its decline and fall has been the subject of numerous academic discussions. There are those who identify that the Rome's descent to moral decay is the culprit as the Roman nobility engaged in excessive sensual pleasures and indulgences, which corrupted its society in the process. This is a popular theme in explaining the decline of other civilizations as well. In the discourse of the fall of the Roman Empire, Livy’s position is one of the commonly referenced. In the History of Rome, for instance, he wrote, â€Å"as disciplined gradually declined†¦ then, sinking farther and farther, then beginning to fall precipitate, until he arrives at the present times, when our vices have attained to suc h height of enormity, that we can no longer endure either the burden of them, or the sharpness of the necessary remedies.†3 But according to Ermatinger (2004), this school is always ill-argued because Rome has been self-indulgent since the middle Republic or as far back as 200 B.C.4 So if self-indulgence and immorality was the reason why it declined, why did Rome persisted and even flourished for several centuries more? Also one can always say that a previous society is morally corrupt but that all societies have this particular decadent aspect and, hence, it is just an easy but ineffectual argument to explain the fall of civilizations. Then, there is also the claim that garnered a lot of interest during the 1970s, which argued that the decline of Rome can be attributed to lead poisoning after the government installed lead pipes for its water system. Romans were also reportedly have used lead tableware for their dining and drinking. But this claim remained unsubstantiated and eventually dispelled. According to Wells, for instance, Byzantium have endured several centuries more than Rome and that their water system may have been derived from the kind used in the Western Empire.5 This point also supports the argument that Rome could have declined earlier since lead is indeed harmful to the brain and overall health. Lead pipes could have shown its adverse effect on the Roman population and could have tremendously shortened the lifespan of the Empire. Anthropologists have also found few quantities of lead in Roman

Compare Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Compare - Term Paper Example Thus, it is paramount to understand the motives for these explorers to set out on the journeys to the Americans Most of the Spanish explorers were sent by the Spanish monarchs of the time. Christopher Columbus, Hernando Cortes, and Vasco Nunez are among the Spanish explorers that affected the world. Isabella was the queen of Castile. She sent Columbus to explore the world for the benefit of the religion and Castile. In September 1492, Columbus sailed with three ships, a crew of less than ninety men and a lack of fundamental understanding of the size of the earth. After about one month, on October 12, 1492, Christopher Columbus voyage cited an isolated chain of Island, which came to be the Bahamas. On the second voyage, Columbus landed on St. Croix where he was welcomed with hostility from the locals. Vasco Nunez was the other notable Spanish explorer. While on an expedition, Nunez cited the Pacific Ocean in 1513 while searching for gold. Nunez claimed the area around the Pacific Ocean and opened the way for further Spanish exploration and conquest. Christopher Columbus voyage set out in 1492 to explore the world through the Atlantic Ocean. The same year was also important to the Spanish for others different from discovery. The Spanish monarchs issued an order for everyone to convert to Christianity or leave Spain. In the urge to continue their expansion and spread of Christianity, the queen sent Christopher Columbus on a mission to spread information about God and to benefit Spain in terms of trade to Asia. They found the Bahamas, Hispaniola and Cuba. Columbus voyage first landing and mainland explorations were in the Caribbean regions and South America (Reilly 332). Vasco Nunez explored the Gulf of Uraba near the present day Colombia and Hispaniola. Christopher Columbus and his men were not successful in their mission. Instead of reaching Asia as stated by their mission, they landed in the Caribbean. Columbus

Separation of Church and State Literature review

Separation of Church and State - Literature review Example Second, and perhaps, on the contrary, the notion of a constitutional "separation of church and state" (a phrase that appears nowhere in the U.S. Constitution) is an influential symbol in American political discourse. Though there is little agreement relating to the precise meaning of such separation, the principle itself is not normally challenged in American politics (Jelen, 2000). Thus, 1Separation of church and state was definitely not an invention of the Enlightenment political theory that might have prompted similar thoughts in the mind of the respected Thomas Jefferson. Certainly, it misleads to analyze the lively experiment in political terms at all, for the Providence regime was just as certainly and decisively rooted in Protestant theologies as was the Puritans' city on a hill. The encompassing description of liberty of conscience was the systematizing principle of society, and it produced a kind of severance of church and state. It is thus significant to keep in mind that the cleavage was meant to protect the church and the soul from the debasing influence of the magistrate, to protect the garden of the church from corruption in the boondocks of the world. The quest for spiritual purity quite factually led into the political realm, where he was basically traditional, if not authoritarian. This priority of the religious is clearly evident in the legislative explanation for the revised 1798 Act Relative to Religious Freedom and the Maintenance of Ministers: Whereas Almighty, God hath created the mind free; that all attempts to influence it by temporal punishments or burthens, or by civil incapacitation, tend only to beget habits of hypocrisy and meanness, and is a departure from the plan of the Holy Author of our religion, who being Lord both of body and mind, yet chose not to propagate it by coercions on either, as was in his almighty power to do that to compel a man to furnish contributions of money for the propagation of opinions which he disbelieves, is sinful and tyrannical; that even the forcing him to support this or that teacher of his own religious persuasion, is depriving him of the comfortable liberty of giving his contributions to the particular pastor whose morals he would make his pattern, and whose powers he feels most persuasive to righteousness, and is withdrawing from the ministry those temporary rewards, which, proceeding from an appropriation of their personal conduct, are an additional incitement to earnest and unre mitting labors for the instruction of mankind.  Ã‚     

Robin Hood Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Robin Hood - Essay Example One of the manuscripts says that Robin Hood was born in 1155. Another manuscript dates his birth in 1220; another one states that he was born between 1280 and 1290 and that he was a part of a rebellion movement against Edward II in 1320. In addition, there is a lot of confusion over the birth place of Robin Hood. The ballads states that he was born in Locksly, Nottinghashire. They also suggest that Robin Hood was the son of William Fitzooth, who was the owner of the land of Loxley. (Vahimagi 30-33) In the popular culture Robin Hood is portrayed as living in Nottinghamshire. Many of the early ballads took place in Nottinghamshire, and they showed Robin Hood and his men fighting in the forest of Sherwood. Some of the early references suggest that Robin Hood may have origins from the land of Barnsland which is now known as the South Yorkshire. (Potter 17) There are many different sources which tell us about different locations referring to be Robin Hood's true home. A tradition belonging to the sixteenth century suggests Loxley as a birth place of Robin Hood. There is a well in Yorkshire known as the Robin Hood's well which is associated with him as early as 1400. His grave is located in the West Yorkshire with a headstone of doubtful authenticity. (Potter 19-20) We find the first references to the rhymes of Robin Hood from a poem written in 14th century by Piers Plowman. From the earliest surviving copies of the ballads it is very clear that Robin Hood had special regards for wo men. He had remarkable skills as an archer and had anti-clerical beliefs. He had a very hostile attitude towards the sheriff of Nottingham, too. (Blamires 28) In popular culture Robin Hood is seen as the supporter of King Richard the Lionheart who was a king in the 12th century. Robin Hood became an outlaw because of the misrule of the king's brother John. One of the oldest ballads known as the Robin Hood and the Monk tells us that Robin Hood had a very little support as a partisan of the king. (Blamires 50-56) The early ballads also provide us with clear picture about Robin Hood's social status. He is named as a yeoman, the meaning of this word have changed over the time from aristocrat to free retainer and landholder. But this word was generally referred to the commoners. In the sixteenth century many attempts were made particularly through two famous plays known as Earl of Huntingdon and Anthony Munday to give Robin Hood noble status. The legend of Robin Hood was also transmitted into Robin Hood games and important plays which were presented in the May Day festivities in the late medieval and early modern times. We find the first record of Robin Hood games in Exeter in 1425. (Hahn 17) But no one was certain about how old this tradition was at that time. In the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries Robin Hood games have flourished. Thorough May games, Maid Marian and a jolly friar connected with the legend. The ballads associated with Robin Hood connect him with recognizable places and there are many people in the world who believe and who are convinced that Robin Hood was a real hero and a real person. There are different theories to indentify the real Robin Hood and for each theory there are numerous supporters. According to some theories Robin Hood was his real name. Other theories suggest that

China,Japan and Korea Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

China,Japan and Korea - Essay Example This form of government was in existence since 1644 to 1911 and it had a number of dynasties, for instance Xia, Shang and Tang (ChinaI 2). Though this form of system was in existence for a long period, it had a number of faults that were the main reason for its fall. According to historical studies, some of the problems associated with this form of political system were that it was marred with not only nepotism but also corruption (ChinaI 11). For instance, court officials themselves were corrupt to the extent of planning intrigues against one another. Citizens were levied high amounts of money in form of taxes that the government spent on undertaking expensive military expeditions. Another example of the poor political system emerged during Mao Zedong era. Mao’s form of government was quite dictatorial that no one would dare oppose his opinions. Since not everyone loved Mao’s form of governance, this resulted to the Cultural Revolution in 1966 that lasted for one decade (ChinaVI 3). During the revolution, Chinese students openly criticized the government. The case was similar during Deng Xiaoping reign whereby students were also unhappy with the form of governance, hence held protests in Tiananmen Square. After turning down the order to vacate the square, Deng sent an army to disrupt the protest that resulted to massive loss of lives, most of whom were students (ChinaIV 18). Just like China, Japan also had numerous issues due to poor ancient political systems. Historically, the Togukawa government ruled Japan. The system comprised of shogun, daimyo and the samurai (Japan V 3). Apart from collecting taxes, the Togukawa government also had the task of controlling cities in addition to maintaining civil order. Japan had both formal and informal institutions; informal institutions comprised of Zoku and Amakudari. Whereas Zoku was a policy tribe comprised of politicians working together for a

Chilean History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Chilean History - Essay Example Not to get out of the topic, Peron’s main policies in this period were based on his being a close observer of the axis power’s fascist leaders, and this might have been the reason he acquired the Napoleonic view of being a man of destiny. When it occurred to him that the axis powers were defeated, to him this revealed the foolishness of the foreign policy of the Argentine and this established in him a conviction that he had a chance of avoiding the clear mistakes of Franco, Mussolini and Hitler in order to dive argentine to a great height. As often known, any dictator needs a bodyguard, and for this case when eyeing the office of the president, he assembled a band of followers from the row deist urban poor of the Argentina. In order to keep models of the Brown and black shirts, he went ahead labeling his followers No shirts with a reason that they lacked the white gentleman’s shirt. This clearly indicated that he was getting a way to middle ground between the com munist and the fascist. Certainly, Peron was an ultra-nationalist who did not fear playing upon the class s rivalry. He took advantage of the powers he possessed while a vice-president to attach himself to the working class. In the event, some military officers sensed that Peron was up to something and went ahead arresting him. In response to this, Peron raised worker’s wages and gave them a paid holiday. Certainly, it was a shrewd investment because it is a chance that her mistress used her beauty in rallying his supporters with giant mobs gathering chanting the slogan of releasing him. This was an advantage for him since though this, he was released, as well as elected president in 1946 elections forming the peronista party. The steps he took after assuming power is what has made him be remembered for transforming the leadership of Argentina. He first went ahead marrying his mistress Eva Peron with opposition being silenced by the bands of No shirts. He along with his team set up and established a full-fledged welfare state alongside granting women voting rights using Eva as the face of the crusades. Noting that the economic policies of the new regime were as bizarre as the Cultural Revolution of Mao, he went to introduce various changes that cut across social, economic, and political. The prominent economic changes entailed freeing Argentina from the foreign dominance through investing heavily in industrialization. This he did by funding the first ever-scientific analysis of Argentina’s Andes Mountains in which he discovered coal and precious metals. With a view to fund the exploration and the social program, he centralized control of imports and exports. In a period of ten years, the true rich Argentina’s resources brought about a stunning social economic growth that actually defied the attempts of experts to attempt explaining it under Juan Peron’s erratic policies. On a social ground, the legacy of Nepoleon left a great impres sion in Peron, in which case the two leaders viewed their people as those who cared little about their liberty, but about the government goal to provide equality. He was called El Leader following his character that established him as being a good fascist and as a good socialist he provided higher wages, unionization, shorter working hours, paid vocations, free medical care, accident, old age, illness insurance, alongside improved housing to everyone. As a capitalist, he

The Story of the Kindertransport Essay Example for Free

The Story of the Kindertransport Essay Out of all the evil people in the world, it only takes a few good souls to stand up and do the right thing in order to make a difference. There are so many stories from wars about death and destruction of peoples homes, lives, and dignities. Wars have a unique ability to cloud the mind. They can make people do crazy things. They can make people do things that they would never think they were capable of doing. Wars can make you do the wrong thing, but they can also open your heart to doing the right thing. Despite the fact that there was so much destruction caused by the dictators who ruled much of Europe during the time of World War two there were people who stood up against those evils. According to the Talmud, whoever saves one life, saves an entire world. This Jewish saying, points out that if you can save one life you have saved an entire generation. This is because when you take away someones life, you take away their ability to fall in love, marry, and have children; therefore, destroying potential. There were six million lives taken away because of the horrific acts that Hitler carried out Six million humans, six million people capable of creating the next generation of the world. Instead, their lives were cut short. It is vital that we remember those who survived this horrific incident and remember their stories. It is important that we tell the story of the Kindertransport so that their story can be remembered for future generations. The word Kindertransport comes from two words in German. Kinder means the children, and transport means to move or relocate. This is exactly what happened to around 10,000 Jewish children living in Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Poland during the Holocaust. The decision for the parents of these children to essentially give up their children in hopes that they might have a better life, must have been very difficult. Normally children were unable to decide on emigration themselves, and it was often only at the station that they realized they had to leave their parents. Emigration for them took place at the stage when a familiar environment with known people is a necessary requirement for development. Moreover, children are always dependent on the help and support of others, particularly in unfamiliar surroundings. One of Britains tasks was how they were going to handle the influx of so many children entering their country. Living in Germany during the 1930s was already difficult enough, but being a Jew living in Germany was even more difficult. Jews were ostracized and persecuted because much of the propaganda that was being filtered throughout Germany blamed the Jews for the economic conditions of their country. Hitler persuaded the German people that their problems would go away if the country was free of Jews. This type of anti-Jewish message sent waves of hate throughout Germany. In November 1938, the events of Kristallnacht (night of broken glass) escalated the persecution of Jews. It is hard for an event like this to not become known throughout the world. Indeed, many countries did hear about this event. Kristallnacht was a massive, coordinated attack on Jews throughout the German Reich on the night of November 9, 1938. On November 9, mob violence broke out as the regular German police stood by and crowds of spectators watched. Nazi storm troopers along with members of the SS and Hitler Youth beat and murdered Jews, broke into and wrecked Jewish homes, and brutalized Jewish women and children. All over Germany, Austria and other Nazi controlled areas, Jewish shops and department stores had their windows smashed and contents destroyed. Synagogues were especially targeted for vandalism, including desecration of sacred Torah scrolls. Hundreds of synagogues were systematically burned while local fire departments stood by or simply prevented the fire from spreading to surrounding buildings In July of 1938, there was a conference held in France. The United States was in attendance. The goal of the conference was to discuss the problems of the Austrian and German Jews. Between 1933 and 1941, the Nazis aimed to make Germany judenrein (cleansed of Jews) by making life so difficult for them that they would be forced to leave the country. By 1938, about 150,000 German Jews, one in four, had already fled the country. After Germany annexed Austria in March 1938, however, an additional 185,000 Jews were brought under Nazi rule. Many Jews were unable to find countries willing to take them in. Many German and Austrian Jews tried to go to the United States but could not obtain the visas needed to enter. Even though news of the violent pogroms of November 1938 was widely reported, Americans remained reluctant to welcome Jewish refugees. In the midst of the Great Depression, many Americans believed that refugees would compete with them for jobs and overburden social programs set up to assist the needy. Other countries besides the United States also resisted the Jewish population. The Great Depression caused hard times everywhere and this created a mind set of resistance. One country, however, saw the need to invite Jewish civilians into their homeland, and that country was Britain. After the British government had been alerted by Jewish organizations to developments in Germany and particularly to the pogrom of November 9, 1938, there were several reasons for Great Britain to issue group visas for an unlimited number of children. First, Great Britain felt a particular responsibility for the refugees from Europe in that Palestine was governed as a British protectorate, but in order not to endanger its diplomatic relations with Arab states Great Britain had announced strict immigration restrictions. Furthermore the government, seeing itself as a world power, hoped with this action to represent a role model which would encourage other countries to follow suit. Not least, the government was aware of its responsibilities to its own Jewish community and did not wish to evade them. The people who advocated for the immigration of the German and Austrian Jewish people was the Religious Society of Friends. The government responded to their cause and agreed to help. However, the fundamental attitude to the Jewish refugees from Europe tended to be reserved. The outcome of the conference at Evian-les-Bains in July 1938 corresponded roughly with the British position towards the refugee question. Under no circumstances did the government wish to give the impression that Britain had opened wide its doors to allow even more refugees to enter the country. It also wanted to avoid encouraging the German government to carry out further expulsions. The danger of provoking further persecution and expulsion of the Jewish population by adopting over-liberal refugee regulations was an argument which was constantly drawn upon both before the outbreak of war, and also during the war itself, to justify the British asylum policy. The decision to issue group visas for Jewish children reflected to a degree this attitude and was, moreover, relatively easy to carry out with the agreement of the British public. Children aroused sympathy in the majority of the population and they posed little danger, at least in the short term, to the labor market. Moreover the childrens stay in the country was at first only planned to be temporary, for at the time of their arrival it was confidently assumed that they would either return to their home countries or would migrate to the U. S. A. or Palestine. Furthermore, it may seem strange from todays perspective how casually children were separated from their parents through the visa regulations. However, for a large section of British society, who could look back on a long tradition of boarding schools, it was completely normal for children to grow up from an early age away from their parents. Understanding the precarious situation that these German-Jewish children faced is very hard to comprehend. It is important that actual survivors tell their stories. The children had to adjust to life in Britain and their experiences are valuable to understanding the difficulties that they encountered. No parent wanted to send their children away, but parents had some hindsight on the dangers that were beginning to surface upon them. Norbert describes the situation as follows: My parents faced a terrible dilemma, a dilemma no parent of small children should ever have to face. [My parents were] convinced that we could not leave Germany in the foreseeable future, so they decided to send me, at age eleven, to safety. The first boat left Berlin on December 1, 1938. The children boarded special trains, and then boarded a ship where they arrived in England, then took another train to London. Ruth described the night before she left: The night before my departure, both my parents gave me a blessing. That is, they laid their hands on me and said a prayer commending me to Gods care: The Lord bless you and keep you; The Lord look kindly upon you and be gracious unto you; The Lord bestow favor upon you and give you peace. There was little else my mother and father could do. I can imagine their thoughts and emotions Saying goodbye to a parent with the uncertainty of what was to happen was troubling for many children. Another survivor Tom Berman of the Kindertransport, documented his feelings before he left in a poem. The end of the poem describes what it was like leaving his home country: Leather suitcase from a far-off country, Czechoslovakia, containing all the love parents could pack for a five year old off on a journey for life. Once they arrived in Britain, they Kinder had to adjust to their new lives. Many of the young children stayed with foster families. If they were unable to be cared for they were sent to hostels or boarding schools. Many organizations and individuals assisted in settling the Kinder in the United Kingdom, including the Refugee Children’s Movement, the B’nai B’rith, the Chief Rabbi’s Religious Emergency Council, various youth movements, the Y. M. C. A., the Society of Friends, and many other Jewish and non-Jewish organizations. Private gifts of money, bedding, and clothing were received as well as offers of foster homes and houses for possible group homes. Many of the Quakers who were involved in petitioning these childrens arrival sought after these children and became foster mothers and fathers to many of the children. Many families, Jewish and non-Jewish, opened their homes to take in these children. Many of the children were well-treated, developing close bonds with their British hosts; however, others were mistreated or abused. A number of the older children joined the British or Australian armed forces as soon as they reached eighteen years of age and joined the fight against the Nazis . While many children recount the fact that they were safe, being in Britain was still an adjustment. Neither of my foster parents spoke German, and adjustment was quite difficult I attended a two-room schoolhouse. All the children knew I came from Germany and they called me Nazi, a world I understood all too well. None of the children wanted to make friends with me. World War two lasted from 1939 to 1945 and was a long and devastating conflict that involved many countries. More than fifty-five million people lost their lives. The world had never seen such a big or deadly war. After the war ended, no one had expected that the Kinder would need to stay in Britain forever. By this time, there were not very many young children, and some had even become adults. Re-uniting with their families seemed virtually impossible. Many people believed that these children were never going to find their family members again. A recent survey by the Association of Jewish Refugees, however, reveals a more positive outcome. The study found that even though approximately two-thirds of the Kinder did not see their parents again, one-third of the children came to Britain with a sibling and about two-thirds of the Kinder found other relatives after the war. Many of those who were unable to re-unite became British citizens. Many people in Britain should be considered heroes. Even though this story seems tragic, it is important to note that many lives were saved because of the brave acts of the citizens of Britain. Without them supporting these children, they may not have had a change to grow up and recount their story. Many of the accounts that are told to help them cope with everything. One survivor has written a poem to help him retell and comfort others who went through the same thing. He ends his poem with these words: And that’s basically my story and that’s basically there I mean there are other things that happened in England and so on but that is really the story of the Kindertransport the story of German Jews And I’m very glad to tell you this because let’s be true if my parents hadn’t been very brave to part with their only child and send it away cause I’m sure they knew that they might never see me again you all wouldn’t be here [ 2 ]. Hodge, Deborah. Rescuing the children: the story of the Kindertransport. Toronto: Tundra Books, 2012 5. [ 3 ]. Hodge, 8 [ 4 ]. The Evian Conference. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. http://www. ushmm. org/outreach/en/article. php? ModuleId=10007698 (accessed April 17, 2013). [ 5 ]. Harris, Mark Jonathan, and Deborah Oppenheimer. Into the arms of strangers: stories of the Kindertransport. New York: Bloomsbury Pub. :, 2000. 21 [ 6 ]. Hodge,16 [ 7 ]. Harris, 22 [ 8 ]. Norton, Jennifer A. , Mona L. Siegel, and Sacramento University. The Kindertransport: history and memory. London: Nick Hern Books, 2010. 35 [ 9 ]. Hodge 18. [ 10 ]. Norton 39 [ 11 ]. Hodge, 22 [ 12 ]. http://www. kindertransport. org/voices/berman_poem_suitcase. htm [ 13 ]. http://www. kindertransport. org/history04_Britain. htm [ 14 ]. Hodge 38 [ 15 ]. AJR: Kindertransport. AJR: Welcome to The Association of Jewish Refugees. http://www. ajr. org. uk/kindertransport (accessed April 17, 2013). [ 16 ]. David I. Hanauer, Living the Kindertransport: A Poetic Representation.

Investigating The Age Of Criminal Responsibility

Investigating The Age Of Criminal Responsibility The following research attempts to explore and discuss the criminal age of responsibility in England and Wales. A questionnaire was given out to a sample population in order to gauge public opinion on and around this topic. Secondary data was gathered, such as books, journals and online resources, in order to discuss and explore different ways of dealing with juvenile offenders. Overall, the evidence indicates a strong argument for the age of criminal responsibility to be raised but insufficient evidence was gathered to determine clearly which juvenile justice approach is most effective. The age of criminal responsibility is the age at which a child can be considered an adult for purposes of criminal prosecution. In England and Wales, the criminal age of responsibility is set at age ten and is one of the lowest in Europe, with only Switzerland being lower at age seven. Countries such as Uganda, Algeria, China and the Russian Federation, all have political regimes that could arguably be considered as severe and excessive, yet, all these countries have set the criminal age of responsibility at over ten years, YJB [online]. In England and Wales the age of criminal responsibility has not changed since 1963, when it was raised from age eight to ten. Until 1988 a policy was in place to safe guard children between the ages of ten and fourteen; under this policy children were presumed incapable of forming necessary criminal intent unless proven otherwise by the prosecution, House of Commons Library [online]. In March of this year, Scotland raised the age of criminal responsibility from age eight to twelve years; England and Wales have no plans to change the age at present. YJB [online]. Therefore, evidence shows that there is no clear agreement on what is an acceptable age to be treated as an adult under the jurisdiction of the law. Literature review Morrison, Blake. (1997). As If. London: Granta Publications. Blake Morrison attended the trial of Jon Venables and Robert Thompson and in his book gives a sensitive account of the families involved in the Bulger case. Morrison describes a criminal justice system that is concerned with only facts and arguably lacks the understanding needed when dealing with such sensitive cases involving children of such a young age. Williams, John. (2010) ASBO Nation. Sociology Review. 19, (4), p2-6. Sociology Review is an academic magazine aimed at A-level sociology students. It covers a broad range of sociological topics including politics, education, and religion and of course crime and deviance. In this issue of the magazine it covered a topic on anti social behaviour orders, which proved useful when discussing juvenile crime. Children Young People Now [online] Available from http://www.cypnow.co.uk/Archive/1009000/Criminal-Bar-Association-chair-calls-rise-age-criminal-responsibility/ [accessed 19th June 2010] Children and Young People Now is a Journal available in print and on line. It aims to bring together children and youth professionals across health, social care, education, childcare, youth work and youth justice, to provide advice and guidance to managers and senior practitioners working with children and young people. It features many relevant news articles and current issues concerning children and young people and is a trusted source of information used by professionals working within this area. The Howard league for Penal Reform. [online] Frances Crooks Blog (updated 1st April 2010) Available from http://www.howardleague.org/francescrookblog/the-age-of-criminal-responsibility [accessed Saturday 19th June 2010] Frances Crook is the director of the Howard League for Penal Reform, the oldest penal reform charity in the U.K. She has been responsible for research programmes and campaigns to raise public concern, about among other things, young people in trouble. Throughout her career she has worked as a teacher in secondary schools as well as taking the position of Governor of Greenwich University. In 2005 she was awarded the Perrie Award which is awarded to individuals who have made a substantial contribution to the development of criminal justice or penal policy and practice. Therefore, Crooks long career working with children and within the criminal justice system gives her valuable insight into the most effective ways of dealing with child crime. Youth Justice Board. [online] Cross-national comparison of youth justice Available from: http://www.yjb.gov.uk/en-gb/ [accessed Saturday 19th June 2010] The youth justice board (YJB), oversees the youth justice system in England and Wales. It works to prevent offending by children and young people under the age of 18 and ensures that custody for them is safe, secure, and addresses the causes of their offending behaviour. It enables access to reports and legislations and is a valuable and reliable resource concerning youth crime. Home office [online] Available from: http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/about-us/ [accessed 1st July 2010] The home office is a Government department that deals with, among other things, drugs, policy, police and crime. During this research it proved useful as a guide to the workings of the criminal justice system in England and Wales. It is also linked to many surveys and statistics that were used within this research. Being an official Government department, the information is highly reliable. Rationale The media is awash with reports of juvenile crime with stories of anti-social behaviour to more violent crimes such as the murder carried out by Jon Venables and Robert Thompson, Blake Morrison, (As If). In 1998 the Anti Social Behaviour Order was introduced, and since then the term asbo child has become part of the English language, Sociology review, vol 19, (p2-6). Gun and knife crimes are high and recent reports claim that the ambulance and emergency services in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, dealt with six hundred and seventy nine gunshot wounds in people under the age of twenty five in the twelve months leading to October 2009, BBC Newsbeat online. Therefore, the criminal age of responsibility is often the focus of much discussion. In light of the recent reports of Jon Venables being taken back into custody Guardian.Co.uk [online], the Childrens Commissioner Maggie Atkinson reportedly called for the government to raise the age of criminal responsibility, from ag e twelve to fourteen, Children and Young People Now [online]. This argument is supported by the Chairman of The Criminal Bar association, Paul Mendelle QC, who is reported as saying that he also believes that the age of criminal responsibility should be raised to age fourteen; he is also reported as calling for a return to the previous policy of Doli Incapax. However the Ministry of Justice maintains that children over the age of ten know the difference between bad behavior and serious wrongdoing, Children and young people now [online]. Therefore, evidence shows a lack of agreement concerning the set age of criminal responsibility. Consequently, it could be argued that the current system would benefit from research to help determine a more universally acceptable age to be held criminally responsibility. Aims The aims of this research are: To explore different ways of dealing with young offenders in England and Wales, to help determine ways that could improve the current system. To discuss whether age ten is a reasonable age for children to be held criminally responsible for their actions, within the jurisdiction of the law. To measure public opinion on whether the criminal age of responsibility should be changed in England and Wales. The experimental Hypothesis and null Hypothesis A majority of the public in England and Wales feel that the criminal age of responsibility should be set higher than age ten. This research predicts that the majority will feel that the age of criminal responsibility should be raised and therefore it is a one-tailed hypothesis. Under the null hypothesis we would expect no clear majority to be revealed on either side of the argument. Method An open questionnaire was used to gather qualitative, primary data (appendix A); eighteen participants were chosen from varied demographic backgrounds to help give a valid representation of the larger population, of England and Wales. Their ages ranged from eighteen to seventy four and consisted of both males and females and both parents and non-parent. The participants were verbally briefed on the nature of the topic and the questionnaire had a brief written introduction explaining the basic history and facts of the subject. They were told that all answers would be regarded as anonymous and that they had the right to withdraw their answers if they so wished. Using an open questionnaire enabled the respondents to be guided through the topical questions whilst still having the flexibility to fully express their feelings on the topic. Also, space was provided for any further comments the participants wished to make. After the interview participants were asked to sign a consent form giv ing their permission for the information to be used in sociological research (appendix B). Results Out of eighteen respondents, just under half felt that the age of criminal responsibility should be set higher than age ten. Just over half of the respondents felt that children of age ten do not fully understand the consequences of their actions. When asked should more responsibility be placed upon the parents of young offenders, all but one respondent felt that it should, thus supporting the idea that the current system in England and Wales does not work sufficiently. Contradictory to this evidence, when asked, do you feel that the current system works sufficiently, only two thirds of the respondents felt that it did not; many respondents felt that they did not know enough about the current system to give a valid reply. When asked for their ideas on improving the current system, respondents answers were varied and included: more discipline at home, stronger punishment for parents and more involvement from relevant bodies i.e. welfare workers etc. Therefore the questionnaire supports the original aims of the investigation. It was useful in gauging public opinion on whether the criminal age of responsibility should be changed and it enabled the respondents to express their opinions on whether age ten is a reasonable age for children to be held criminally responsible for their actions. Lastly it gave space for respondents to give any ideas they had concerning the improvement of the current system Discussion Overall the research indicates that there is a strong argument for raising the criminal age of responsibility; this is supported by both primary and secondary data. Many people feel that children of age ten do not fully understand the consequences of their actions. Also, evidence indicates that there is a strong feeling amongst the public that more responsibility should be placed upon parents; when asked, all but one respondent agreed that parents should take more responsibility for their childrens behaviour. Lastly, the primary data from this research indicates that many people feel that the current juvenile justice system does not work sufficiently in England and Wales. The results from the questionnaire support existing evidence; for example there is much evidence to support a change in the age of criminal responsibility in England and Wales. One such argument was put forward by the childrens commissioner Maggie Atkinson; who when referring to the murder of James Bulger (James was murdered by two ten year old boys in 1993, Morrison, As If) is reported as saying Venables and Thompson should not have been tried for murder, at age ten they were too young to understand the full consequences of their actions Guardian [online]. Frances Crook, the Director of The Howard League for Penal Reform also supports Atkinson argument and compares the legal system of England and Wales with that of other countries in Europe. In her blog, Crook points out that the criminal age of responsibility in England and Wales is one of the youngest in Europe and she goes on to argue that children in these countries are not ignored if they do wrong but instead their immaturity i s recognized and the response is appropriate, Frances Crooks Blog [online]. This argument is also supported by the chairman of the criminal bar association, Paul Mendelle, who called for the age to be raised from age ten to fourteen. In an interview in the Telegraph Mendelle is reported as saying, a child of ten can know he or she is doing something wrong and not always appreciate it is criminally wrong children and young people now [online]. In his book As If, Blake Morrison again supports this attitude and suggests that children of ten are not able to act on their understanding of right and wrong with the same conviction as adults; he goes on to argue that, if children of ten know the difference between right and wrong then why not let them be jurors? (As If, chapter 5). Although there is much support for the criminal age of responsibility to be raised, it has been refused by the Ministry of Justice, which maintains that children of age ten and over can differentiate between bad behavior and serious wrong doing, Children and Young People Now [online]. Many people have similar opinions as the primary data of this research illustrates, just under half of the respondents felt that age ten is a reasonable age to be held criminally responsible for your actions. Other than public opinion, there is little evidence of a similar attitude; many high profile and academic people agree that age ten is not an appropriate age but other than the Ministry of Justice, no academic opinion was found to support the other side of this argument. Research illustrates two main attitudes towards dealing with young offenders: the welfare approach and the justice approach. The welfare approach emphasises paternalism and protection and therefore focuses on treating the root causes of juvenile crime; whereas the justice approach emphasises judicial rights, accountability for crimes and formal punishment, Cross-national comparison of youth justice [online]. It could be argued that most criminal justice systems can be traced back to either the welfare or justice approach but most are more varied and complex and include elements of both. According to the Home Office Youth Lifestyle Survey (1998/99) [online], key factors linked with serious and/or persistent offenders between the ages of twelve and seventeen was found to be: Drugs children that had used drugs within a twelve month period were almost fives times more likely to offend than those that had not. School children that were unhappy in school or were persistent truants were found to be more likely to offend. Family and peers children that had family and friends who had offended were found to be more likely to offend themselves. Also children that did not have sufficient supervision and guidance, and /or hung around in public places, were found to be more likely to offend than those that did not. Additional research into the reasons why children offend is beneficial to crime prevention agencies in addressing and preventing juvenile crime. Much research supports the idea that prevention is the cheapest and most successful way of dealing with crime; studies in America have shown that one dollar spent on early prevention will save seven dollars fourteen years later, young people and crime [online]. Therefore, the root causes of youth crime are of great interest to Sociologists and Governments alike. The following paragraphs aim to explore and compare two similar criminal cases, so as to determine ways that could improve the current system in England and Wales. The first crime took place in 1993 in Merseyside, England. Two year old James Bulger was taken from a shopping centre by two ten year old boys, Jon Venables and Robert Thompson. Venables and Thompson wandered around with James for several hours before beating him and leaving him tied to a railway track; when the child was finally found his body had been cut in half by a passing train. The two boys, Venables and Thompson were tried and convicted of murder in an adult court which in contrast to youth courts allows public and media access and consequently spent eight years in custody before being released in 2001 with protected identitys, Morrison, As if. In 2010 Venables was taken back into custody but the reason has not been made clear to the public. There has been no news on Thompson and so it may be assumed that he has settled back into mainstream society with no major problems. A similar crime was committed in 1994, in the Norwegian city of Tronheim. Five year old Silje Raedergard was stoned and left to freeze to death in snow, by two six year old boys, BBC News, How Norway dealt with its Bulger case [online]. In contrast to the Bulger killing, the two boys responsible for killing Silje were not prosecuted or named in the press but instead were treated as victims, not killers. The boys were left with their families and returned to kindergarten shortly after the incident and welfare and psychological help was given to them. All that is known of the two boys today is that one has settled back into mainstream society and the other still has ongoing psychiatric problems. Therefore it could be argued that while these two cases were dealt with very differently, the outcomes are similar. One of the boys responsible for Siljes death has adjusted to normal life but the other still receives psychiatric help. Likewise, Venables has been returned to custody but Thompson so far has not. Little more is published about the boys or families concerned in these cases, which leaves many questions un-answered concerning the long term effects of both methods of reform. Statistics show (appendix C) that the annual total crime rate in 2002, in the U.K. is over 6.5 million compared to Norway which is just over 330,000; this could arguably be an indication that the juvenile justice system in Norway is more efficient than of that in England and Wales, The Eighth United Nations Survey [online]. Limitations of the methodology Keeping the focus of this research simple proved difficult because the subject of criminal responsibility is extremely vast. Finding Government reports and statistics that were specifically related to the topic was also difficult and time consuming. Also, gathering a sample that is representative of the wider population is challenging when time and resources are limited. Therefore the primary data gathered in this research was arguably limited and a larger population sample may have given more valid results. Not all of the questionnaires were returned and some people felt that they did not know enough about the topic to make valid comments. Therefore a more in-depth introduction or briefing may have been beneficial. Possibly a focus group would have been a more useful method of gathering primary data as it would of enabled the participants to fully discuss their ideas and thoughts on the subject before deciding on any conclusions. In conclusion, the evidence gathered in this research supports the hypothesis; there is much evidence both primary and secondary that suggests that the criminal age of responsibility should be set higher than age ten. Different ways of dealing with juvenile crime was explored and statistics were gathered to help determine which system proves to be most sufficient. Arguably, lower crime rates in Norway indicates that the welfare approach which is the most dominant factor in the Norwegian system is more effective than the justice approach, that is more dominant in England and Wales but as the comparison of criminal cases show, any difference is minimal and not sufficient to make any bold conclusions. Recommendations If further research were to be carried out, I would recommend that; More time is taken to investigate other juvenile justice systems, such as that of Norway. A larger population sample would be useful to gauge a more valid public opinion. A focus group would be useful to enable participants to discuss and answer any queries they have.

AP1 :: essays papers

AP1 The short story "A & P," a nineteen year old boy who works in a small grocery store on the East-Coast, called an A & P. He works in the store as a check out clerk until a warm summer day when three girls wearing only wearing their bathing suits came into the store to buy herring snacks and sour cream for one girl's mother. All was going well until--the owner of the store enters and puts down the girls for coming in the store in inappropriate attire. In a pointless heroic move to try and win over the girls; Sammy quits his job to protest the treatment of the girls. This "selfless" act was in vain, for when he left the store hoping the girls would be there waiting for him, they were gone. Updike has painted a perfect picture of what is in the inner mind of a young man--SEX. He does this by the detailed description of each of the three girls and a "heroic" act to save the day. Updikes use of description of the smallest details of the three girls let the reader know where Sam's mind is; right in the gutter. In the first paragraph Sam's thoughts of the first girl he sees, or as he calls her, "Plaid" are nothing but analyzing every curve on her body. As Plaid walks into the store Sammy begins to have a mental description, of oddly enough--her butt, "with a good tan and a sweet board soft-looking can with those two crescents of white just under it, where the sun never seems to hit, at the top of the backs of her legs" (480). Updike takes on this rule as a sex driven nineteen-year-old character very well. Sammy seems to like another quality, "They didn't even have shoes on" (480). This struck me as odd-at least by todays standards. Seeing girls without shoes is an everyday event. The girl that Sammy is most in awe of is "Queenie" the leader of the three girls. Being the leader of the three girls and the most flamboyant may be what attracted Sammy to her; "what got me, the straps were down†¦off her shoulders looped loose around the cool tops of her arms" (481). Sam's only desire was simply sex and this blinded his judgment.

The Problem of Population Growth and the Solution of Population Plannin

The Problem of Population Growth and the Solution of Population Planning INTRODUCTION Human population growth, overpopulation, and earth’s biological carrying capacity have been concerns of scientists for many years. In 1679 Antoni van Leeuwenhoek estimated that the maximum number of people Earth can support is 13.4 billion and estimates have continued to vary drastically since then (Cohen, 1995). There are many ecological indicators, including desertification and water problems, which point to the likelihood that we are approaching our limit. There are many sub issues within this overall problem that must be addressed in order to work towards solving this problem, including sustainable living, water shortages, etc. However, the purpose of this paper is to focus on the idea of population control as one possible starting point for a solution. CARRYING CAPACITY It is important to remember that carrying capacity can change with new technology, different use of resources and better resource management. Carrying capacity can also change in the opposite direction due to a catastrophic event or overexploitation of resources. As was mentioned previously, there have been many estimates made on Earth’s carrying capacity since 1679. Estimates have varied greatly, ranging from 1000 billion. Currently the UN’s projection is that Earth can support around 9 billion people (www.prb.org). It is expected that the human population will reach that size by 2050. The current world population is around 6.3 billion. So, many believe that this is becoming, and has been, an imminent problem. According to Cohen, there have been six different methods that have been used to estimate Earth’s human carrying capacity.... ...eved October 31, 2004 from: Population Reference Bureau www.prb.org. Haub, C. & Herstad, B., (July, 2002). Sterilization World’s #1 Contraceptive Method. Retrieved October 31, 2004 from: Population Reference Bureau www.prb.org. Meulenberg, C., (Sept./Oct. 2004). {Definitely}Probably One: A Generation Comes of Age Under China’s One-Child Policy. World Watch, 17, 31. Roudi-Fahimi, F., & Moghadam, V.M., (November, 2003). Empowering Women, Developing Society: Female Education in the Middle East and North Africa. Retrieved October 31, 2004 from: Population Reference Bureau. www.prb.org. UNFPA, (2004). State of the World Population: The Cairo Consensus at Ten: Population, Reproductive Health and the Global Effort to End Poverty. Retrieved October 31, 2004 from: www.unfpa.org. Zi, L., (2004, July 8). Population Planning Paradox. Beijing Review, 47, 22. The Problem of Population Growth and the Solution of Population Plannin The Problem of Population Growth and the Solution of Population Planning INTRODUCTION Human population growth, overpopulation, and earth’s biological carrying capacity have been concerns of scientists for many years. In 1679 Antoni van Leeuwenhoek estimated that the maximum number of people Earth can support is 13.4 billion and estimates have continued to vary drastically since then (Cohen, 1995). There are many ecological indicators, including desertification and water problems, which point to the likelihood that we are approaching our limit. There are many sub issues within this overall problem that must be addressed in order to work towards solving this problem, including sustainable living, water shortages, etc. However, the purpose of this paper is to focus on the idea of population control as one possible starting point for a solution. CARRYING CAPACITY It is important to remember that carrying capacity can change with new technology, different use of resources and better resource management. Carrying capacity can also change in the opposite direction due to a catastrophic event or overexploitation of resources. As was mentioned previously, there have been many estimates made on Earth’s carrying capacity since 1679. Estimates have varied greatly, ranging from 1000 billion. Currently the UN’s projection is that Earth can support around 9 billion people (www.prb.org). It is expected that the human population will reach that size by 2050. The current world population is around 6.3 billion. So, many believe that this is becoming, and has been, an imminent problem. According to Cohen, there have been six different methods that have been used to estimate Earth’s human carrying capacity.... ...eved October 31, 2004 from: Population Reference Bureau www.prb.org. Haub, C. & Herstad, B., (July, 2002). Sterilization World’s #1 Contraceptive Method. Retrieved October 31, 2004 from: Population Reference Bureau www.prb.org. Meulenberg, C., (Sept./Oct. 2004). {Definitely}Probably One: A Generation Comes of Age Under China’s One-Child Policy. World Watch, 17, 31. Roudi-Fahimi, F., & Moghadam, V.M., (November, 2003). Empowering Women, Developing Society: Female Education in the Middle East and North Africa. Retrieved October 31, 2004 from: Population Reference Bureau. www.prb.org. UNFPA, (2004). State of the World Population: The Cairo Consensus at Ten: Population, Reproductive Health and the Global Effort to End Poverty. Retrieved October 31, 2004 from: www.unfpa.org. Zi, L., (2004, July 8). Population Planning Paradox. Beijing Review, 47, 22.

Comparison of Northwest Airlines and American Airlines Essay -- Aviati

Comparison of Northwest Airlines and American Airlines Globalization Globalization can be defined as â€Å"making worldwide in scope or application†(1). In this comparison of the global corporate culture of Northwest Airlines and American Airlines several areas will be addressed. The strength of the global culture with-in the companies. The fit of the company to the global marketplace, and the adaptive ness or the empowerment of the employees will be examined and compared. Perhaps more important, than whether they currently have a global atmosphere, is whether they can improve or create this atmosphere. A comparison between the two airlines will be made on their mission statements, information dissemination, global-mindedness, career paths, and the use of cultural differences as an asset and if a worldwide training system is in place. A conclusion will then be made as to which corporation has the best organizational composition to compete in the global market. The strength of Northwest and Americans’ global culture can be compared by evaluating how well they â€Å"facilitate performance†(2,546). Both of the corporation’s employees, it may be argued, have the common goal of wanting their company to expand and continue to grow in the global market. It could also be argued that the companies differ, in significant ways, when it comes to the motivating effect this common goal has. Northwest seems to be better motivated in obtaining this goal. Examples of this motivated corporate culture are illustrated by the fact that they were â€Å"pioneers in global alliances†(3) and in the fact that they have committed major investments, in the form of hub cities, in both Tokyo and Amsterdam. American, on the other hand, does not seem to be as motivated by the goal of expansion in the global market. Although they have alliances with several international carriers, the number of alliances is not as large as Northwestâ€⠄¢s. The recent acquisition of TWA, by American (4), may help to expand their global culture, due to the greater foothold this acquired asset has in the global market. In addition the financial investment that Northwest has shown in the global market is lacking in American. The only hub, questionably, outside of the U.S. is in San Juan, Puerto Rico (4). American seems to concentrate its strength inside the U.S., which may have a stifling effect on globaliza... ...y increases, all of which are received positively by employees. Whenever possible, managers should select technology that increases workers’ skill requirements. Providing effective training about ways to use the new technology is essential. Training helps employees perceive that they control the technology rather than being controlled by it. The training should be designed to match workers’ needs, and it should increase the workers’ sense of mastery of the new technology. Mangers face a substantial challenge in leading organizations to adopt new technologies more humanely and effectively. Technological changes are essential for earnings growth and for expanded employment opportunities. The adoption of new technologies is critical determinant of American and Northwest Airlines in the global marketplace. Works Cited 1. Merriam - Webster Dictionary. www. M-W.com . ‘Globalization’ 2. Debra L. Nelson & James Campbell Quick. (2003). Organizational Behavior, Fourth Edition. Thomson. Pages 539 - 559 3. Northwest Airlines. www. NWA.com . Company Overview 4. American Airlines . www. AMRcorp.com . AMR Corporate Information

Organizational Citizenship Behavior in Carrefour Egypt

The British University in Egypt Faculty of Business Administration, Economics and Political Science Exploring OCB and its variables, its evaluation and implementation: The case of Carrefour Egypt A Dissertation submitted in part fulfilment of the requirements for the award of B. A. in Business Administration, Human Resources Management Specialization 2008/09 By Seif Mamdouh Ezzeldin ID: 100558 Honours Level – Class of 05/06 Under the Supervision of Dr. Hadia FakhrElDin 1 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour has not been dedicated enough research. The topic is quite new to the HR professionals and challenging. It is also challenging to conduct research on the topic as it has been suggested that OCB is inconsistent and has been stated as an ill-defined science. This paper analysis previous literature done on OCB in parallel with conducting field research in a large multinational in Egypt – in attempt to measure their employees’ OCB and bring the suggested evaluation method into practice. It has been concluded that OCB is not consistent among all employees. However, guidelines to effective evaluate it across different employees have been suggested. Adding to this, the questionnaires in this paper provides a jumpstart for future researchers who wish to evaluate the level of OCB in an organisation. 2 Contents 1. Introduction 1. 1 Research questions 1. 2 Research aims 1. 3 Research Methodology 2- Literature review 2. 1 Definition and history of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour 2. 2 Variables of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour 2. 3 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour can be controllable 2. 4 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour examination is challenging 2. 4. 1 Clarifying in and out role conduct 2. 5 Types of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour 2. Literature Summary 3. Aims and methodology 3. 1 Aims 3. 2 Methodology 3. 2. 1 Questionnaire (1) 3. 2. 2 Questionnaire (2) 3. 3 The research place 3. 4 Advantages and limitation of the methodology adapted 4. Data analysis 4. 1 Questionnaire (1) 4. 1. 1 Highest ranking agreed-with statements (above 66. 6 %) 4. 2 Questionnaire (2) 4. 2. 1 Most agreed upon as in-role (above 66. 6 %) 5. Conclusion 5. 1 Key aims and findings 5. 2 Limitation of the study 5. 3 Directions for future research References Appendix 4 8 9 10 12 12 14 17 19 20 21 25 27 27 30 31 33 34 35 37 37 40 42 46 48 48 51 52 53 55 1. Introduction International trade, European Union, labour mobility, ease of cross border transportation, competition, globalisation, desire to a better living standard and striving for achievement are all factors to employees shifting jobs. Unlike salaries, working conditions, job descriptions and appraisals, these factors cannot be controlled by an organisation. This has all increased interest in Human Resources Management (HRM), careers and Organisational Behaviours (OB) as sciences. An organisation can retain an employee who is not satisfied with his pay by increasing the salary. However, it cannot retain an employee who does not feel committed to the organisation or does not actually feel the organisation is holding on to him/her or treating him as a valued asset; as human resources of organisations were recently categorised as assets since they contribute, develop, control, manage and add value all other different assets (Bisson & Branscombe, 2008) The external factors listed are usually considered threats to an organisation as it is always in fear of losing its human resources. Imagine an organisation purchasing very expensive high-tech machines that generated a lot of profit giving it up to a competitor. The consequences are more or less the same if those high-tech machines were top performing employees who may need stronger motivation than money or benefits. The motivation then comes from a newer HR term called Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB). One of the characteristics of being a citizen is being committed (to the norms, cultures, behaviours, attitudes and rules). Commitment to an organisation is referred to as Organisational Commitment (OC). 4 OC has been defined as an attitude involving employee loyalty to the organisation with those employees who are committed being willing to contribute something of themselves to their organisations (Smith and Hoy, 1992). OC is one of the very first attitudes that lead to OCB. It is complemented by organisational trust, the degree of employee satisfaction, involvement in decision-making, sense of importance, career guidance and a sort of monetary motivation. What makes the study challenging is that OCB, an inexact science, is defined as discretionary, ‘extra-role' behaviour, not formally rewarded or punished by the organization, which, in the aggregate, benefits the organization by improving efficiency and/or effectiveness (Organ, 1988). Although OCB is not an obligation or not part of an evaluation process, employees who enjoy it find it an obligatory factor of the job. Free trade, common markets, economic and political unions – which all fall under the umbrella of globalisation is a main reason why organisations, locally and internationally are now seeking; new areas for sustainable competitive advantages and in the eyes of most, Human Resources are one of the most important factors that cannot easily be imitated by others, which defines a sustainable competitive advantage. As being referred to, OCB is a matter of personal choice that goes beyond the call of duty. It can be reflected in situations such as an employee having to decide on whether to attend an informal company event or spending the evening at home. 5 Below are some of the many types of OCB as identified by Bachrach et al. (2000: 516526) 1. Helping Behaviour or Altruism: Selfless concern to the help of others. For example, an employee may inform his/her absent colleague from a training about what has been missed 2. Sportsmanship: Knowing that there is no loss to a party when it comes to a win for the organisation 3. Organisational Loyalty: Promoting the organisation to outsiders as well as supporting and defending it against threats or attacks 4. Organisational Compliance: The behaviour of complying by the organisation? s rules and norms, considering that not every employee initially complies even though it is a must. 5. Individual Initiative: This entails engaging in task-related behaviours at a level beyond minimally required or generally expected levels that it takes on a voluntary flavour 6. Civic Virtue: This is showing willingness to actively participate in the organisation? governance It can now be said that OCB refers to the ability, willingness and motivation to react and perform in a behaviour that is not required and not aiming to be rewarded for it. One other reason why OCB is being an important issue at the moment is the existence of some countries such as Japan, where a person spends his or her entire life working for one organisation and affiliates his or her name with the organis ation. On the other extreme, there are countries such as Egypt where employees regard the organisation they work for part of their career. 6 Some research results indicate that desirable behaviour is determined and managed by the organization. With reference to the selected variables, this paper will justify whether they are in the controllable or uncontrollable environment of an organisation. 7 1. 1 Research questions The research is intended to answer the following questions through reviewing previous literature and conducting field analysis: What is an agreed upon definition for OCB? Why is OCB not disseminated among HR practitioners? Are there specific grounds for what is defined as in-role and out-role? What are the variables that can be related to OCB and influence the behaviour? Since there are variables that can influence the behaviour, can OCB be aimed for by an organisation or is it uncontrollable? How can the level of OCB be evaluated? 8 1. 2 Research aims The research aims to assess the willingness and level of OCB within a large multinational as Carrefour as well as showing the importance of OCB and briefly reviewing the emergence of HR in Egypt. This adds to the existing literature the justification of why OCB is not a well-known concept in organisations within the business sector of this economy. Moreover, clarification of the difference and the relationship between Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) and the variables outlined in addition to practically bringing the variables and type into field work is aimed for. This research also aims to integrate the different Human Resources (HR) activities that sum up and lead to OCB. ? OCB is an inexact science and the paper will try to identify factors which lead to this behaviour, that is desirable by all organisations, and how it can benefit them through examining the direct and indirect relation between OCB and the variables which include: ? ? ? ? Satisfaction Empowerment Involvement Trust Confidence Reaching a clear-cut agreement on what is regarded as in-role and out-role through employees, and checking the findings with other similar sources for consistency is also aimed for. 9 1. 3 Research Methodology ? Literature including internet research Academic research portals, case studies Questionnaires: Two questionnaires are used as part of the field research for this paper. The questionnaires were given to a sample of twenty-five employees at Carrefour Obour City, Egypt ? ? ? Targeting random levels of employees throughout the organisation to test and evaluate their understanding of OCB ? The survey will include questions that test the three main variables and sub points listed above and will be designed to be as consistent as possible through getting the same result in different ways. ? The questions criterion of the questionnaire will be categorised into questions that measure 1. Trust; that include dimensions of integrity, competence and dependability Commitment; which will reflect the variable of culture Satisfaction Loyalty The six types of OCB studied in the literature . 3. 4. 5. 10 The surveys shall then attempt to evaluate to what extent is there OCB in Carrefour Egypt based on the variables. The results will be compared to: 1. The management expectations The relationships of the variables and literature on the topic The existence of OCB in the organisation, considering the fact that the management are not fully aware of OCB as a science and are c onsequently not directly enforcing it or progressing towards it 2. 3. 11 2- Literature review 2. Definition and history of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour OCB literature originited in the work of Katz and Kahn who argued that an important behaviour required of employees for the effective functioning of an organisation is the undertaking of innovative and spontanuous activities beyond the prescribed role requirement. (Vigoda 2000). Organisational Cititeznship Behaviour is the individual behavior that is descritionary, not directly or explicitly recognised by the formal reward system, and that in the aggreagate promotes the effective functioning if the organisation (Organ as cited in Denis W Organ 1997). Organ in the same literature further clarifies that by descretionary, it is meant that the behavior is not an enforceable of the role or job description. It is is rather a matter of personal choice such that its ommision is not generally understood as punishable (1997: 86). Organizational citizenship behaviour has been the focus of attention from organizational behaviour researchers (Bachrach et al. , 2000; Organ & Ryan, 1995; Organ, 1997; George & Battenhausen, 1990 as cited in Chen; Huang; & Liu) since Organ in 1988 proposed that organizational citizenship behaviour could influence individual and organization erformance. There has, however, been very little interest in studying the topic. According to the research of Bachrach et al. (2000), very few interest and research was conducted on the topic before 1988. Bachrach et al. explain in their literature that an employee who religiously obeys all rules and regulations, even when no one is watching, is regarded as a â€Å"good citiz en† (2000: 524) 12 OCB construct has also been defined as â€Å"†¦ a general tendency to be co-operative and helpful in organisational settings †¦ (LePine, Erez, & Johnson, 2002 as cited in Ladebo). Eran Vigoda supports the argument that OCB is regarded as the extra-role activities employees pursue by saying that extra-role behaviours describe activities beyond formal job requirement that one chooses to do without expecting any direct reward (2000: 191). The author also defined in-role as the tasks employees pursue as an integral part of a job. Views of a sample of employees in this regard will be shown further in this paper. Previous studies on employment relations indicated that employees viewed the practice of such behaviours (OCB) as personal obligations to co-operate with co-workers in solving task-related problems and to assist the organisation to achieve its performance objectives (Kessler, Purcell & Shapiro, 2004; Buyens , De Vos & Schalk, 2001; Janssens, Sels, & Van den Brande, 2003 as cited in Ladebo). Hence, this raises the question of whether OCB is still a beyond-role activity or not. If the suggestion is valid; this means that organisations without those behaviours shall fail. Robbins and Judge stated that evidence indicate that organisations only benefit from those employees who have a sense or citizenship to the organisation and those organisations outperform those that do not (2007: 30) and referred to such employees as a need for any successful organisation. 13 2. 2 Variables of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour Katz (1964) states that three basic types of employee behaviours are critical for the overall effectiveness of any organization: ? tempted to remain within the system. carry out their role assignments in a dependable manner. ? innovative and spontaneous activity in achieving There must be organisational People must People must be objectives that go beyond the role specifications. Behaviours (2) and (3) are examples of OCB (Organ, 1988). Other examples of OCB are a willingness to give time helping others who have work-related problems, taking steps to prevent problems with other workers, and obeying organization rules, regulations and procedu res even when no one is watching. Podaskoff has argued that although research on OCB is on the increase, some unfortunate consequences has been brought up (Podaskoff et al. as cited in Chen, Huang & Liu). Adler, 1989; Hofstede, 1980 as cited in Chen, Huang & Liu further argued that different people from different cultures will not necessarily conform to the same set of norms and will have different beliefs of what can be viewed as OCB. It has been noted that the many occasions in which organizational functioning depends on supra-role behaviour cannot be prescribed or required in advance for a given job. Such 14 behaviours are referred to as the gestures that lubricate the social machinery of the organisation (Bateman as cited in Katz and Kahn 1966). Some examples as portrayed by the authors include helping co-workers with a job related problem or tolerating temporary impositions without complaint. These were referred to as citizenship behaviours (Bateman 1983). The author has also concluded that there is a fundamental connection between satisfaction and OCB. Organisational citizenship behaviour is influenced by job satisfaction. (Bateman 1983). OCB Researchers in at least 15 independent studies as well found a reliable statistical relationship between OCB and job satisfaction (Dennis W. Organ, 1995). Bateman (Bateman 1983). Job satisfaction, especially intrinsic satisfaction, was directly related to OCB. Extrinsic satisfaction did not mediate the relationship between Job characteristics and OCB (SuFen Chiu and Hsiao-Lan-Chen, 2005). As some appraisal methods such as achieving sales quote or calls are related to pay and extrinsic rewards, others including citizenship behaviour and the out-role behaviour are mainly motivated and encouraged through intrinsic rewards and one? s emotions regarding the self. Job characteristics are the attributes of jobs that can have motivational functions for employees. The job characteristics investigated by this study primarily include Hackman and Oldham's (1975) five core job characteristics (or dimensions) as well as the job interdependence concept. The five core job characteristics are as follows: job variety (the extent to which an employee can use different skills in doing his/her work), job identity (the extent to which an employee can complete the whole or identifiable piece of work), job significance (the extent of the significant impact of the job on others), autonomy (the 15 extent of freedom, independence, and discretion of an employee to plan his/her work pace and method), and feedback (the extent to which an employee knows his/her own job performance from the job itself, colleagues, supervisors or customers (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). Job interdependence refers to the extent to which an employee in a team relies on others to complete his/her own tasks (Shea & Guzzo, 1987) (as cited in Su-Fen Chiu & Hsiao-Lan-Chen, 2005) The social exchange theory also suggests that when an employee feels satisfied with his or her job, he or she will reciprocate with positive behaviour (OCB) to benefit the organisation (Organ & Ryan, 1995). Organizations have become more reliant on interdependent social and departmental networks, which have changed the nature of core work activities within the individual work units (Ostroff & Smith, 1992). This suggests that it is not only enough for some employees to enjoy such behaviours; OCB must be transmitted across all employees as none work independently. 16 2. 3 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour can be controllable Previous literature suggested that the desirable behaviours, OCB, can be manageable by an organisation (Gene et al, 2000). A good social climate with involvement, fair and competent management, good communication, satisfaction with the organization, and an emphasis on good planning are suggested by the authors to implant this behaviour. Therefore, organisations are also part of the equation; not only the employees. Employees search for companies that are willing to be more committed to them, says Jan Stringer organizations who are more sensitive to their needs and who won't lay them off during economic slumps (2009). Committed employees tend to have personal values that are similar to those of the company. They are proud to be a part of their company, care about the fate of the company, and recommend the company as a great place to work. Stringer, in her article, suggests some factors in the workplace that influence commitment such as: ? ? ? ? ? Identifying the factors that satisfy employees Identifying factors that are source of dissatisfaction Ensuring that the recognition programmes are meaningful to employees Establishing clear career paths Establishing mentors to advise employees about career management inside the organization ? Identifying benefits that can be used to reward good performance. Ensuring the clarity of the organisation? values as well as ensuring its communication and practice across different organisational levels – clear values 17 help establish teamwork, cooperation and standards of behaviour within an organisation ? Examining the consistency and alignment of actions, policies, and procedures with values It has been argued that a leader? s fair or supportive behaviour may create a need in subordinates to reciprocate. One way to pay-back a leader for the support and fair behaviours is by performing better or engaging in citizenship behaviours (Vigoda 2000). Vigoda? s argument could be linked with the existence of the psychological contract that is concerned with an individual? s subjective beliefs, shaped by the organisation, regarding the terms of an exchange relationship between the individual employee and the organisation (Rousseau as cited in Beardwell & Claydon, 2007). It is of importance, however, to mention that some literature proposed an argument that OCB can be a threat to the internal health of an organisation. The literature suggests that OCB has more than two probabilities; present and absent – a third probability is that it can be of negative effect. Vigoda in his paper explains that supervisors and managers have direct influence over subordinates? behaviours by increasing fairness and equality in interactions with them. Hence, in organisations where there is political gamesmanships and power struggles, there will be low concern with values such as equity and fairness and this is where the in-role duties and OCB will be, for the first time, negatively related and result in dissonances (2000: 192). Empirical evidence indicates that employees, who perform less OCB, are likely to exhibit withdrawal behaviours, consider leaving the organisation (Ladebo, 2005 as cited in Ladebo). 18 2. 4 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour examination is challenging Valid evidence to why OCB is not a major concern to Human Resources departments in organisations as other HR focuses is the fact that the rewards that accrue to OCB are at best indirect and uncertain, as compared to more formal contributions such as high productivity or technical excellence or innovative solutions. Those contributions would have a greater likelihood of being expressly linked to the formal reward system. (Organ as cited in Denis W Organ 1997) Organizational citizenship is not a part of the formal evaluation and reward system therefore failure to engage in these behaviours cannot be formally penalized (Van Dyne, Cummings, & Parks as cited in Gene et al. , 2000) 19 2. 4. 1 Clarifying in and out role conduct There is a problem, however, that OCB aspects such as accepting tolerance and helping others would be considered part of the job (Organ as cited in Morrison 1994). Morrison concludes her study saying that OCB is ill-defined and varies from one employee to the next and between employees and supervisors. The greater an employee's perceived job breadth, the more activities he or she defines as in-role (1993:2). This supports the argument that OCB is an inexact science and is viewed differently by different people. The previous argument by Morrison suggests that a manager could define improving the morale of his team members as in-role yet a lower level employee would regard it as out-role. Hypothesis 1 in the article supports this. It has as well been suggested that one of the main problems with defining OCB is the fact that the concept of in and out role is inexact and unclear (Organ 1997) and this justifies the reason for experimenting what employees actually regard as in and out in this concern – theory on its own is a limitation in this regard. Vigoda? s literature as well supports that in and out-role is ill defined and varies from one employee to the other in her literature (2000: 191). 20 2. 5 Types of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour In an attempt to classify and breakdown OCB into different types, the author of this paper refers to Bachrach et al? literature (2000: 516). The authors organised different types of citizenship behaviours into seven main themes: (1) The helping behaviour involves voluntarily helping others with, or preventing the occurrence of, work-related problems and helping others by taking steps to prevent the creation of problems for co-workers (2000: 516, 517). Smith, Orga n & Near previously discussed this behaviour in the name of altruism (Becker & Vance, 1993). (2) Organ (1990b: 96 as cited in Bachrach et al. , 2000) has defined sportsmanship as â€Å"a willingness to tolerate the inevitable inconveniences and impositions of work without complaining. However, his definition seems somewhat narrower than the label of this construct would imply. The authors added to Organ? s definition that â€Å"good sports† are people who not only do not complain when they are inconvenienced by others, but also maintain a positive attitude even when things do not go their way are not offended when others do not follow their suggestions, are willing to sacrifice their personal interest for the good of the work group, and do not take the rejection of their ideas personally (2000: 517). (3) Organizational oyalty entails promoting the organization to outsiders, protecting and defending it against external threats, and remaining committed to it even under adverse conditions as well as 21 spreading goodwill and protecting the organization and acts of supporting and defending organizational objectives (2000: 517). (4) Organisational compliance regards the behaviour of complying to an organisation? s policy as a form of citizenship behaviour is that even though everyone is expected to obey company regulations, rules, and procedures at all times, many employees simply do not (2000: 517). The author of this article theoretically views this form of OCB inconsistent. However, because the authors argue that some employees do not originally comply by the policies and norms, the argument is considered valid. Smith, Organ & Near previously referred to organisational compliance by the term generalised compliance (Becker & Vance, 1993). (5) Individual initiative involves engaging in task-related behaviours at a level beyond minimally required or generally expected levels that it takes on a voluntary flavour. Such behaviours include voluntary acts of creativity and innovation designed to improve one's task or the organization's performance, persisting with extra enthusiasm and effort to accomplish one's job, volunteering to take on extra responsibilities, and encouraging others in the organization to do the same (2000: 524). (6) Civic virtue is projected by showing willingness to actively participate in the organisation? governance such as attending meetings and expressing opinion about what strategy the organisation ought to follow to monitor its environment for threats and opportunities such as keeping 22 up with changes in the industry that might affect the organisation, and to look out for its best interest even at great personal cost. These behaviours, add the authors, reflect an employee? s recognition of being part of a larger whole in the same way that citizens are members of a country and accept the responsibilities which this entails. The authors further outlines that this dimension has not received any empirical confirmation in the citizenship behaviour literature. However, it does appear to be a discretionary form of employee behaviour that is conceptually distinct from the other citizenship behaviour dimensions, and might be expected to improve organizational effectiveness through somewhat different mechanisms than the other forms of citizenship behaviour. All these behaviours are consistent with Organ? s definitions of employees going beyond the formal requirements. The literature portraying the seven types of OCB is regarded as very reliable and trusted as it is supported by arguments of several well known writers who provided literature on the same topic including George & Brief (1992), George & Jones (1997), Borman & Motowidlo (1993, 1997). Williams and Anderson (1991), Van Scotter & Motowidlo (1986) and (Organ, 1988) as cited in Bachrach et al. , 2000. As part of the field work for this research, results of a survey will be projected at a further stage showing what different employees regard as in-role and out-role. The actions that employees were asked to comment on were also formed in grouping of the first six types mentioned above, as the self-development? s limitation is that it cannot be measured. The questions constructed were mostly inspired from Morrison? s literature (1994: 1553). 23 However, the addition of the OCB types as measures is an added contribution in this paper. 24 2. 6 Literature Summary The thought about OCB originated with the argument of Katz and Kahn who argued that only the undertaking of innovative and spontaneous activities beyond the regular shall effectively function an organisation. Several authors pioneered by Denis W. Organ defined OCB as a behaviour that is of personal choice; it is discretionary, not intended for reward or recognition and considered beyond-role behaviour. As the term beyond-role was brought into existence, researches, academics and practitioners were not successful in finding agreed upon behaviour that is regarded in-role or out-role by everyone. Moreover, it has been stated that OCB is difficult to research and reach as it is not part of the formal evaluation and reward system. Authors agreed that different employees categorise the same behaviours differently: a manager could define assisting an intern in another department as in-role, while an employee in the same department as the manager would find it out-role. OCB has many related variables that were identified by several authors. Among them are job satisfaction, empowerment, commitment from both the employee and the organisation, involvement, feedback and others. Literature mainly stressed on the job characteristics and satisfaction. Some researches also argued that the OCB, the desired behaviour, can be achieved by an organisation? management through empowering and embedding their employees with toolkits that include research about determinants of satisfaction, dissatisfaction, loyalty, career advisement and behavioural modification. 25 Bachrach and other authors (2000) were able to define seven major types of OCB in their literature titled Organizational Citizenship Behaviours: A Critical Review of t he Theoretical and Empirical and Suggestions for Future Research that can provide great help to practitioners and researches attempting future research to classify, categorise and evaluate OCB within an organisation. 6 3. Aims and methodology 3. 1 Aims The research aims to assess the willingness and level or OCB within a large multinational as Carrefour. It has been observed that majority of the previous literature has either not recently tackled OCB practically and from a practitioner? s viewpoint or has not projected results in a manner simple and comprehended by some other researchers. Adding to this, the concept of OCB is not yet comprehended in the Egyptian business society. Human Resources itself is still considered a new concept. Since the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, employees were granted excess rights that employers themselves were complaining. The rights outweighed the duties and responsibilities. By 1980, the employment law in Egypt was passed and tried to maintain a fair balance between employer and employee rights and was regarded as successful. The law was majorly concerned with three stakeholders other than the employer and the employee; those were the employment office, health office and the social insurance office. Personnel and personnel affairs department (now named Human Resources) have started to exist in large hotels and banks in Egypt by mid 1980s. The concept started developing until what is now called Human Resources – ever since organisations begun realising that employees are one of the most valuable assets. The core duties of the Human Resources department, formerly known as personnel affairs, now include other sub departments such as compensation and benefits, equal opportunities, training and development as well as other functions. Despite the fact that the evolution of HR concepts in Egypt started tens of years earlier, the concept of OCB is not yet used between HR executives and personnel as other terminology is. 27 For this reason and for other reasons such as globalisation and free trade, foreign investment is on increase in the Egyptian economy and the requirement of valuable and durable staff is on the increase. Hence, awareness and application of this term is of extreme importance and this paper could initiate the action. The research also aims to answer the following: ? What is an agreed upon definition for OCB? o This question will be answered through reviewing previous literature and compiling the most important definitions of OCB. ? Why is OCB not disseminated among HR practitioners? o Literature review will be the main guide to answering this question. ? Are there specific grounds for what is defined as in-role and out-role? o The source depended upon for this aim is questionnaire (2) which will show what the sample studied regard is in and out role. ? What are the variables that can be related to OCB and influence the behaviour? Literature review will be the main guide to answering this question. ? Since there are variables that can influence the behaviour, can OCB be aimed for by an organisation or is it uncontrollable? o Literature review as well as questionnaires (1) and (2) will help answer this question as statements and questions in the surveys can guide HR professionals to find out where the loopholes are, and which areas employees need motivation or awareness at. 28 ? How can the level of OCB be evaluated? o The questionnaires given are one source of evaluating OCB. 9 3. 2 Methodology Reviewing the literature of renowned authors and writers about OCB and what has been previously said and published. Due to the fact that OCB is not widely discussed among HR academics and practitioners, extensive research was required to understand the origins, theories, implications and types of OCB. Furthermore, literature review provided solid grounds and a platform upon which the arguments are built. In addition to this, the review assisted the further field work carried on for this paper which will be discussed. The literature review also assisted the author to specify the scope of the paper as well as building knowledge base for future research. Two questionnaires were also used as part of the field research for this paper. Two different questionnaires were given to a sample of twenty-five employees at Carrefour Obour City, Egypt. The respondents were from random departments. However, it has been ensured that only employees and supervisors complete the survey – not workers, in order to ensure consistency and fairness of the results. An employee would find him/herself more committed to and rewarded by the organisation more than a security personnel – this is the present view of the business environment in this culture. 30 3. 2. 1 Questionnaire (1) This is a twenty-five question questionnaire that has been compiled and structured assessing the environment at Carrefour as a large multinational where employees are highly focused on their jobs and do not frequently interact with the top management. The questions were assessing dimensions of trust, integrity, confidence, empowerment, satisfaction, commitment and involvement. The choices for respondents were (1) Agree, (2) Neutral, (3) Disagree. The dimension of trust tackles issues of trust between the employee and his/her organisation, the treatment and his/her colleagues. The dimension of integrity is focused on whether the respondent feels that integrity is demonstrated within the actions and promises of the organisation or not. The confidence is primarily focused on whether the employee is confident about the organisation and management? s capabilities or not. Empowerment assesses whether or not the employee feels empowered enough to step outside his/her department, have opinions in other aspects of the organisation and encouraged to provide feedback in a decent manner even if not required. It has also been tested whether the employees are satisfied or not, in terms of the job, surrounding personnel, the organisation and job security. Commitment was not extensively focused upon in Questionnaire (1) as the primary focus of Questionnaire (2) is commitment – Organisational Citizenship Behaviour in particular. However, Questionnaire (1) assesses the commitment of the employees in the aspect of loyalty and feeling that the organisation is also concerned with him/her as an employee 31 Finally, the involvement dimension tests whether the employee is involved in departmental work, organisational activities, announcements and decision making or not. The results are to indicate whether the employees fulfil and find fulfilled the dimensions mentioned in the organisation and are willing to portray citizenship behaviour or not. 32 3. 2. 2 Questionnaire (2) This is an eighteen question questionnaire adopted from Morrison (1994). Adjustments were made and the questions are restructured and divided to serve the six types of OCB referred to in the literature – three questions assessing each type/component and the respondents mark whether they regard the statement written as in-role (part of what they regard as their formal duty) or outrole( referred to as OCB). The six types/components are individual initiative, organisational loyalty, sportsmanship, civic virtue, helping behaviour and organisational compliance. 33 3. 3 The research place Carrefour is a leading operator in the retail industry worldwide, French based. It has been lastly ranked in the second half of 2007 as the first among twenty-two competitors and the thirty-second most profitable organisation among five-hundred (Global 500, 2007). It is the second-largest retailer in Europe and the first in Egypt. The Carrefour group has fifteen-thousand stores company-operated and franchises. Carrefour Egypt is a franchise to Majid-Al-Futtaim (MAF Group), a renowned business man from the United Arab Emirates who also operates Carrefour in several countries other than Egypt. Carrefour International? s principles guiding the HR policy: 1. Freedom 2. Responsibility 3. Sharing 4. Respect 5. Integrity 6. Solidarity 7. Progress In values (1) to (5), the company included their employees as part of the principles and policy, expressing great concern towards them. In addition to this, points (2), (3), (4) and (5) in particularly is directly related, and part of OCB as have been discussed. 34 3. 4 Advantages and limitation of the methodology adapted Questionnaires as the main source for this field research where chosen as they carry the following advantages: ? As some of the questions are direct and the answers must be confidential, many respondents displayed relief as they found it there are no personal details required There is no risk of conflicting meanings – the questions are set and are not interpreted differently to different respondents. This makes translating a copy of the questionnaire into Arabic a valid action ? ? The questions do not differ from a respondent to another Questions can be re-organised and tackled with different manners after the surveys are c ompleted There is a written record of people? s responses ? ? ? Easier to administer Less time consuming Easier to analyze There are, however, some disadvantages as well: ? ? ? Some people were possibly not honest with their responses Some people might have not fully understood some of the questions Some people may left blank spaces There has been a possibility that some people were biased due to the perception or belief that there is a pre-suggested or pre-agreed upon answer 35 ? ? ? Continuation of fear that the questionnaires could be seen by the HR department The questionnaires and data analysis rely on the honesty of respondents Some of the respondents were confused as Carrefour Egypt HR carry out questionnaires to their personnel twice a year, once in June Limited questions equals limited analysis, which is always a limitation of questionnaires Due to the existence and awareness of these disadvantages and limitations, actions were taken accordingly: ? Extreme confidentiality w as given to respondents. The questionnaires projected the aim and privacy assurance to the respondents. Moreover, some of the respondents have been verbally re-assured that the surveys are kept confidential. ? In addition to this, further assurance was made to some of the respondents that the researcher is not affiliated with the organisation in any way and it has also been made clear by the HR personnel that this questionnaire has nothing to do with the company? s formal periodical evaluation. 36 4. Data analysis 4. 1 Questionnaire (1) This is a twenty-five question questionnaire that has been compiled and structured assessing the environment at Carrefour as a large multinational where employees are highly focused on their jobs and do not frequently interact with the top management. The questions were assessing dimensions of: ? Integrity and equal opportunity: This dimension tests whether integrity is demonstrated in actions by the management and employees of the organisation as well as testing fairness among employees and equal opportunities. Example statement: This organization treats its employees fairly and justly ? Confidence: This dimension measures the degree of confidence among employees about the skills and abilities of the organisation as well as confidence of being generally valued. Example statement: I feel very confident about this organization? skills ? Empowerment: This dimension evaluates the degree of empowerment, autonomy and freedom that employees feel they are equipped with. Example statement: My manager/supervisor encourages creativity/innovation by reducing the fear of failure 37 ? General satisfaction: This dimension questions the level of satisfaction employees have – satisfaction from the job, working conditions, job security as w ell as informal networks. Example statement: The organization fails to satisfy the needs of its employees like me ? Commitment : This dimension evaluates the degree of commitment in the organisation. Not only whether employees are committed; but also if they feel the organisation is mutually committed. Example statement: I feel that this organization is trying to maintain a long-term commitment to its employees and me ? Involvement: The involvement dimension evaluates to what extent are the employees involved in different aspects of the organisations – involvement in non-work related activities, company posts and updates, competitive position and information on other departments. Example statement: I am usually aware and my supervisor keeps me informed of the company? s ongoing situations The results of the survey are shown in Figure 4. 1 38 Agree Satisfied This organization treats its employees fairly and justly This organization can be relied on to keep its promises I believe that this organization takes the opinions of its employees like me into account when making decisions I feel very confident about this organization? skills I think it is important to watch this organization closely so that it does not take advantage of its employees and me I feel that this organization is trying to maintain a long-term commitment to its employees and me Compared to my previous workplace(s), I value my relationship with this organization more I feel a sense of loyalty to this organization I think other employees are happy in their interactions with this organization The organization fails to satisfy the needs of its employees like me I am aware of the company? overall s trategy I feel my department gets support and teamwork from other areas within the company My manager/supervisor encourages creativity/innovation by reducing the fear of failure My manager/supervisor demonstrates professionalism I understand how the company's strategy differentiates us from the competition I am usually aware and my supervisor keeps me informed of the company? s ongoing situations (ups and downs, etc) How satisfied are you with with your job? How satisfied are you with the morale of the people with whom you work How satisfied are you with your own morale? I feel that my work gives me a sense of personal accomplishment How satisfied are you that you receive appropriate recognition for your contributions? How satisfied are you with your overall job security? How satisfied are you with your informal life and networks within your organisation? Does your company show enough consideration to your personal time outside work? As an employee, I feel empowered to make decisions beyond my job description 14 13 7 23 6 18 23 21 5 2 18 16 19 23 20 15 21 12 16 20 12 14 8 12 7 Neutral 8 9 12 0 10 7 1 3 14 11 4 6 3 1 4 9 3 10 5 4 8 8 12 9 12 Disagree Dissatisfied 3 3 6 2 9 0 1 1 6 12 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 3 4 1 5 3 5 4 6 Percentage % Agree Neutral Satisfied 56 52 28 92 24 72 92 84 20 8 72 64 76 92 80 60 84 48 64 80 48 56 32 48 28 12 12 24 8 36 0 4 4 24 48 12 12 12 4 4 4 4 12 16 4 20 12 20 16 24 Disagree Dissatisfied 32 36 48 0 40 28 4 12 56 44 16 24 12 4 16 36 12 40 20 16 32 32 48 36 48 Figure 4. 1 Questionnaire (1) responses 39 4. 1. 1 Highest ranking agreed-with statements (above 66. 6 %) The highest ranking statements have been grouped into four categories: Job contributors, supervisory contributors, involvement contributors and commitment contributors. 1- Job: ? I feel that my work gives me a sense of personal accomplishment (80%) How satisfied are you with with your job? (84%) This shows that the majority of employees in Carrefour are both satisfied with their jobs there and feel that their jobs add to their sense of personal accomplishment. This can be attributed to the fact that Carrefour Egypt asks the employees for eval uations, said Mr. Hussein, which partially focus on weather an employee: ? ? ? ? Likes the job and likes the organisation Likes the job but dislikes the organisation Dislikes the job but likes the organisation Dislikes the job and the organisation – Supervisory: ? ? My manager/supervisor demonstrates professionalism (92%) My manager/supervisor encourages creativity/innovation by reducing the fear of failure (76%) This shows that the majority of employees are satisfied with their managers and supervisors in terms of being a „role-mode? within the organisation or being empowered 40 enough by them to be calculated risk-takers. This is attributed to the complex selection and recruitment at Carrefour Egypt, as well as a periodical corporate review. 3. Involvement: ? ? ? I am aware of the company? s overall strategy (72%) I feel very confident about this organization? s skills (92%) I understand how the company's strategy differentiates us from the competition (80%) This shows that employees across Carrefour are aware of the company? s strategy and therefore aware of the vision and mission statements. The result shown is possibly because of communication the vision and mission across the organisation, as well as the employees initiating eagerness to learn more about the organisation. 4. Commitment: ? I feel a sense of loyalty to this organization (84%) Compared to my previous workplace(s), I value my relationship with this organization more (92%) ? I feel that this organization is trying to maintain a long-term commitment to its employees and me (72%) The majority of the employees value Carrefour more than their previous employers as well as feeling they are loyal to this organisation. This goes back to the fact that commitment is shown both from the organisation and the employees at the same time. 41 4. 2 Questionnaire (2) This is an eighteen question questionnaire adopted from Morrison (1994). Adjustments were made and the questions are restructured and divided to serve the six types of OCB referred to in the literature – three questions assessing each type/component and the respondents mark whether they regard the statement written as in-role (part of what they regard as their formal duty) or out-role( referred to as OCB). The six dimensions are: ? Individual initiative: This dimension evaluates to what extension the employees themselves are eager to perform more duties than their job entails. Example statement: Thinking you should also think of what is best for the organisation even if not asked or involved ? Organisational loyalty: This dimension examines the level of loyalty employees possess. Loyalty in this case is examined by actions employees perform that are non-work related that prove they are, for no reward, loyal to the organisation. Example statement: Attending voluntary functions that help the organisation? s image ? Sportsmanship: This dimension tests to what extents could employees prioritise work requirements and exceptions even on their own expense. 2 Example statement: Not taking excess time off, even if you have extra vacation days ? Civic virtue: Other than fulfilling the job, some employees show willingness to participate or provide viewpoints in governing the organisations. Civic virtue tests this perspective. Example statement: Attending voluntary meetings considered important ? Helping behaviour: The helping behaviour is shown by employees through t he willingness to help others and as well prevent problems for occurrence. Example statement: Covering for co-workers who are absent or on break ? Organisational compliance: Although organisational rules and policies should be abided by, some employees still don? t. This dimensions, therefore, tests to what extent employees comply. Example statement: Not spending time on personal telephone conversations Based on questionnaire (2) and the responses, Figure 4. 2 shows the contribution of each dimension to the whole (OCB) as shown by the employees at Carrefour. Figure 4. 3 shows the results of Questionnaire (2) 43 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour The Dimensions Individual Initiative Organisational loyalty Sportsmanship %12 Civic virtue Helping behaviour Organisational compliance %19 %19 %31 %8 %11 Figure 4. 2 OCB components 44 Action Thinking you should also think of what is best for the organisation even if not asked or involved Keeping up with changes and developments in the organisation Helping people outside department when they have a problem Reading and keeping up with organizational announcements Helping organize departmental get-togethers Attending voluntary functions that help the organisation? image Coming to work early if needed Having to work overtime because of a colleague? s mistake, not you Not taking excess time off, even if you have extra vacation days Attending voluntary meetings considered important Volunteering to do things without being asked Helping orient new people even when not asked Covering for co-workers who are absent or on break Helping others with work when they have been absent Giving time to help others with work-related problems Being punctual everyday regardless of weather, traffic, etc Not spending time on personal telephone conversations Not spending time in non work related issues Regarded in-role 9 Percentage % 36 Dimension Individual Initiative 4 5 18 2 5 3 6 19 17 4 21 11 20 13 22 23 25 16 20 72 8 20 12 24 76 68 16 84 44 80 52 88 92 100 Individual Initiative Individual Initiative Organisational loyalty Organisational loyalty Organisational loyalty Sportsmanship Sportsmanship Sportsmanship Civic virtue Civic virtue Civic virtue Helping behaviour Helping behaviour Helping behaviour Organisational compliance Organisational compliance Organisational compliance Figure 4. 2 Questionnaire (2) responses Adopted from Morrison, E. W. 1994) „Role definitions and organizational citizenship behaviour: The importance of the employee? s perspective.? Academy of Management Journal, 37, 1556 45 4. 2. 1 Most agreed upon as in-role (above 66. 6 %) 1. Organisational compliance: ? ? ? Being punctual everyday regardless of weather, traffic, etc (88%) Not spending time on personal telephone conversations (92%) Not spending time in non work related issues (100%) It is clearl y observed the majority of employees regard complying with rules, policies and the psychological contract as in-role behaviours. In theory, organisational compliance has to be regarded as in-role already. However, due to the suggestion that not all employees comply, it has been surveyed. This proves the opposite of Morrison? s hypothesis that it might not be regarded as in-role – it is. The dimension of organisational compliance is the most agreed upon as in-role among the questioned employees and constitutes thirty-one percent of the OCB in Carrefour. Like in Morrison? s research, organisational compliance is the most agreed upon dimension as being in-role – 89, 80 and 68 percent respectively. . Helping behaviour: ? Helping others with work when they have been absent (80%) This may be attributed to the culture of Egyptian people more than for the business environment – people known to be helpful and cooperative. In Morrison? s research, agreement to this behaviour as in-role was 78 percent. 3. Civic Virtue: ? Attending voluntary meetings considered important (68%) 46 In comparison to the original research, the result here shows 18% higher agreement. This would further justify the 80% loyalty demonstrated in questionnaire (1). 4. Sportsmanship: ? Not taking excess time off, even if you have extra vacation days (76%) This is backed up by the fact that 80% of the respondents in questionnaire (1) agree to the statement which says that their work gives them a sense of personal accomplishment. Moreover, it supports the result in section 4. 4. 1 as job satisfaction is one of the highest contributors to the employees? commitment. The result in this research exceeds the original work by 10 percent. 5. Organisational loyalty: ? Reading and keeping up with organisational announcements (72%) The original research exceeds this result by 12 percent. However, 72 percent of employees regarding this statement as in-role is quite a satisfactory rate, especially that only 56 percent of the employees agreed to the statement that their manager/supervisor cares to keep them updated in questionnaire (1). Furthermore, loyalty has been also proved in several other statements. The general agreement between this research and the original research done by Morrison (1994) shows consistency and proof that these elements are regarded as in-role by most employees. 47 5. Conclusion 5. 1 Key aims and findings The research aims at defining OCB from an academic and a practical viewpoint as well as assessing the willingness and level of OCB within a large multinational as well as showing the importance of OCB and briefly reviewing the emergence of HR in Egypt. Moreover, clarification of the difference and the relationship between Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) and the variables outlined in addition to practically bringing the variables and type into field work is aimed for. This research also aims to integrate the different Human Resources (HR) activities that sum up and lead to OCB. The research questions: ? What is an agreed upon definition for OCB? (Chapter 2) Organisational Cititeznship Behaviour is the individual behavior that is descritionary, not directly or explicitly recognised by the formal reward system, and that in the aggreagate promotes the effective functioning if the organisation. It is also regarded as the extra-role activities employees pursue by saying that extra-role behaviours describe activities beyond formal job requirement that one chooses to do without expecting any direct reward. ? Why is OCB not disseminated among HR practitioners? Chapter 2) OCB is still regarded as a new term. Moreover, there has been a very limited number of literature on OCB in comparison with other HR terms. Adding to this the difficulty of defining the actions and conduct that is regarded as beyond-role. 48 ? What is defined as in-role and out-role? (Chapters 2 & 4) There has been agreed upon behaviours for what is regarded as in-role. As for out-role or beyond-re sponsibility conduct, it is concluded that the difference in employment level will always let individuals interpret in and out-role differently. Hence, it is also concluded that OCB varies proportionately with the level of employment which agrees with the common sense. Like most managers are more satisfied with their jobs (due to pay, prestige and benefits), they are also more committed and portray more citizenship behaviours. Furthermore, like a new employee is not used to the organisation and not regarded as loyal yet, his OCB is still in the introduction phase. ? What are the variables that can be related to OCB and influence the behaviour? (Chapter 2) The literature outlined many variables that are related and complements the favourable behaviour. Among these variables are job satisfaction, loyalty, commitment, sportsmanship, compliance and integrity. ? Since there are variables that can influence the behaviour, can OCB be aimed for by an organisation or is it uncontrollable? How can the level of OCB be evaluated? (Chapters 2 & 4) From the literature, it is concluded that organisations can focus more on studying the variables and elements that lead to the favourable behaviours desired such as identifying the factors that satisfy employees, establishing clear career paths and examining the consistency and alignment of actions, policies, and procedures with values. In addition this, the field research in chapter 4 summarises and adds the 49 contributors, variables and components of OCB which, if read and analysed by organisations, will provide assistance on how to modify their employees behaviours and enable them to reach the behaviour needed for success and prosperity of any successful organisation. The surveys conducted provide valid foundation to organisations who wish to evaluate their level of OCB as the surveys successfully reached this aim – with further modifications that suit every organisation. 50 5. Limitation of the study Due to the fact that OCB has not been granted enough interest from researchers and practitioners up-to-date, the amount of literature available was not of high assistance to the theoretical study. Moreover, direct help from the practitioners, especially in Egypt was difficult to find as they have not been informed of OCB and its implications. Adding to this, many organisations are not in favour of researcher s conducting surveys in their premises, especially of critical and confidential information such as commitment, loyalty, fairness and trust. Another limitation is the small number of sample as only one branch of Carrefour (Obour) was examined. This may influence the result as not to reflect the opinions of employees in Carrefour in Egypt, but only Carrefour Obour. However, the researcher has been assured that the same managerial and leadership style as well as working conditions are followed not only in Carrefour Egypt; however it is internationally abided by. The topic also limits researchers due to the fact that the level of OCB differs from one employment level to another. Finally, it is concluded that as a conduct or action is considered to be in the employment/psychological contract, it is automatically more regarded as in-role. Evidence of this is the fact that organisational compliance is the highest contributor to the OCB of the organisation while the all elements of the compliance are elements of any employment contract. 51 5. 3 Directions for future research It has been concluded in this paper that the level of OCB varies from an employment level and duration to another. As a result, the topic needs to be further expanded in future research. Future field research should assess different levels of employees as well as grouping employees that have been employed in an organisation for similar durations to maintain fairness and consistency. Furthermore, research in different types of organisations should take place. It is expected that in a service industry, the level of OCB should be higher than in others due to the fact that employees are more empowered as they interact more with their customers – the main source of revenue and sustainability. The future research should take place in different industries and questioning whether the results could or could not be compared against each other. Adding to this, conducting the research in a non-for-profit organisation would be a very good example of OCB for reasons that include the fact that NPOs do not compensate its employees, or the compensation is not profit generating. As a result, employees have more committing reasons than monetary rewards and motivation. This research was initially intended to research this issue. However, due to the limited time and resources, this has not been feasible. A suggested NPO is AIESEC (www. aiesec. org). An international NPO considered role model to NGOs and NPOs. Members of this organisation demonstrate the highest levels of OCB that can be observed. Word count 9,072 52 References Bachrach, et al. (2000) „Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: A Critical Review of the Theoretical and Empirical and Suggestions for Future Research.? Journal of Management, 26, 51. 1-61. 1 Bateman, T (1983) „Job Satisfaction and the Good Soldier: The Relationship between Affect and Employee †Citizenship†? 26(4), 587-595 Beardwell, J & Claydon, T (2007) Human Resource Management: A Contemporary Approach. Essex: Prentice Hall. Becker, T & Vance, R (1993) „Construct validity of three types of organisational citizenship behaviour: an illustration of the direct product model with refinements.? 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Retrieved May 16, 2009, from http://EzineArticles. com/? expert=Jan_Stringer Vigoda, E (2000) „Internal politics in public administration systems: An empirical examination of its relationship with job congruence, organizational citizenship behaviour, and in-role performance.? Public Personnel Management, 29, 185-210 Interview with Mr. Amr Hussein, Carrefour Obour H. R. Manager. Dated May 12, 2009 at Carrefour Obour offices. (2007, 23 July) „Carrefour?. Fortune Global Five 500. Retrieved May 18, 2009 from http://money. cnn. com/magazines/fortune/global500/2007/snapshots/7881. html www. carrefour. com 54 Appendix Questionnaire (1) This is not a test. There are no „right? or „wrong? responses to the statements that follow. A response is only „right? if it reflects your personal opinion, and the strength of your reaction, as accurately as possible. Please indicate the level of your agreement with the following statements. Answers are to be kept confidential and shall only be used for academic purposes; no names or personal information required. It should not take more than 10 minutes to complete this questionnaire. This organization treats its employees fairly and justly Agree Disagree This organization can be relied on to keep its promises Agree Disagree Neutral Neutral I believe that this organization takes the opinions of its employees like me into account when making decisions Agree Neutral Disagree I feel very confident about this organization? skills Agree Disagree I think it is important to watch this organization closely so that it does not take advantage of its employees and me Agree Neutral Disagree I feel that this organization is trying to maintain a long-term commitment